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TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
2
WHAT IS IVORY?
3
THE IVORIES
9
Elephant and Mammoth
9
Walrus
13
Sperm Whale and Killer Whale
15
Narwhal
17
Hippopotamus
19
Wart Hog
21
IVORY SUBSTITUTES
23
NATURAL IVORY SUBSTITUTES
25
Bone
25
Shell
25
Helmeted Hornbill
26
Vegetable Ivory
27
MANUFACTURED IVORY SUBSTITUTES
29
APPENDIX 1
Procedure for the Preliminary Identification
31
of Ivory and Ivory Substitutes
APPENDIX 2
List of Supplies and Equipment for Use in the
31
Preliminary Identification of Ivory and Ivory Substitutes
GLOSSARY
33
SELECTED REFERENCES
35
COVER: An enhanced photocopy of the Schreger pattern in a cross-section of extant elephant ivory. A concave angle
and a convex angle have been marked and the angle measurements are shown. For an explanation of the Schreger
pattern and the method for measuring and interpreting Schreger angles, see pages 9 – 10.
INTRODUCTION
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Ivory identification: Introduction
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The methods, data and background information on ivory identification compiled in this handbook are the
result of forensic research conducted by the United States National Fish & Wildlife Forensics Laboratory,
located in Ashland, Oregon.
The goal of the research was to develop a visual and non-destructive means of tentatively distinguishing
clearly legal ivory from suspected illegal ivory at ports of entry. As such, it was necessary that the methods
be 1) simple to perform, and 2) not to require the use of sophisticated scientific instruments. In this regard,
we were successful.
In reviewing the text, you will notice that we did not include detailed classical morphology data on whole
tusks or teeth; mostly because the whole structures are fairly easy to identify but also because it is
impossible to anticipate which portion of a tusk or tooth will be used for any specific carving. Instead, we
chose to focus our attention on the ‘species determining’ characteristics of the ivory material itself.
The result is a handbook designed to offer wildlife law enforcement officers, scientists and managers a
tentative visual means of distinguishing legal from illegal ivory, and a “probable cause” justification for
seizure of the suspected illegal material.
One point which must be emphasized: while the methods described in this handbook are reliable for the
purposes described (i.e.: tentative visual identification, and “probable cause” to seize as evidence), an
examination of the carved ivory object by a trained scientist is still necessary to obtain a positive
identification of the species source.
We hope that this handbook proves to be useful to you in your endeavors to protect ivory-bearing species.
Ken Goddard, Director
National Fish & Wildlife
Forensics Laboratory
For further information, please write to:
National Fish & Wildlife
Forensics Laboratory
1490 East Main Street
Ashland, Oregon 97520 USA
Tel: (503) 482-4191
FAX: (503) 482-4989
The identification guide for ivory and ivory substitutes was published in a form of a booklet in 1991. It was published in
the three working languages of the Convention by World Wildlife Fund and the Conservation Foundation.
Because the booklet was sold out, the Secretariat has decided to reprint the text and the illustrations as part of the
CITES Identification Manual.
The Secretariat is grateful to World Wildlife Fund and the Conservation Foundation for permitting this reprint, and to
the authors for verifying the original text, that needed no amendments.
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Text: Edgard O. Espinoza and Mary-Jacque Mann
Originally published by World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation Foundation; 1991
WHAT IS IVORY?
The word “ivory was traditionally applied only to the tusks of elephants. However, the chemical structure of
the teeth and tusks of mammals is the same regardless of the species of origin, and the trade in certain
teeth and tusks other than elephant is well established and widespread. Therefore, “ivory” can correctly be
used to describe any mammalian tooth or tusk of commercial interest which is large enough to be carved or
scrimshawed.
Teeth and tusks have the same origins. Teeth are specialized structures adapted for food mastication.
Tusks, which are extremely large teeth projecting beyond the lips, have evolved from teeth and give certain
species an evolutionary advantage. The teeth of most mammals consist of a root, a neck and a crown. A
tusk consists of a root and the tusk proper.
Teeth and tusks (Fig. 8) have the same physical structures: pulp cavity, dentine, cementum and enamel.
The innermost area is the pulp cavity. The pulp cavity is an empty space within the tooth that conforms to
the shape of the pulp.
Odontoblastic cells line the pulp cavity and are responsible for the production of dentine. Dentine, which is
the main component of carved ivory objects, forms a layer of consistent thickness around the pulp cavity
and comprises the bulk of the tooth and the tusk. Dentine is a mineralized connective tissue with an organic
matrix of collagenous proteins. The inorganic component of dentine consists of dahllite with the general
formula Ca
10
(PO
4
)
6
(CO
3
) H
2
O. Dentine contains a microscopic structure called dentinal tubules which are
micro-canals that radiate outward through the dentine from the pulp cavity to the exterior cementum border.
These canals have different configurations in different ivories and their diameter ranges between 0.8 and 2.2
microns. Their length is dictated by the radius of the tusk. The three dimensional configuration of the dentinal
tubules is under genetic control and is therefore a characteristic unique to the order.
Exterior to the dentine lies the cementum layer. Cementum forms a layer surrounding the dentine of tooth
and tusk roots. Its main function is to adhere the tooth and tusk root to the mandibular and maxillary jaw
bones. Incremental lines are commonly seen in cementum.
Enamel, the hardest animal tissue, covers the surface of the tooth or tusk which receives the most wear,
such as the tip or crown. Ameloblasts are responsible for the formation of enamel exhibits a prismatic
structure with prisms that run perpendicular to the crown or tip. Enamel prism patterns can have both
taxonomic and evolutionary significance.
Tooth and tusk ivory can be carved into an almost infinite variety of shapes and objects. A few examples of
carved ivory objects are small statuary, netsukes, jewelry, flatware handles, furniture inlays, and piano
keys. Additionally, wart hog tusks, and teeth from sperm whales, killer whales and hippos can also be
scrimshawed or superficially carved, thus retaining their original shapes as morphologically rocognizable
objects.
The identification of ivory and ivory substitutes is based on the physical and chemical class characteristics
of these materials. This handbook presents an approach to identification using the macroscopic and
microscopic Physical characteristics of ivory in combination with a simple chemical test using ultraviolet
light. Table 1, to be used in conjunction with the text of this handbook, is a suggested flow chart for the
preliminary identification of ivory and ivory substitutes. Table 2 summarizes the class characteristics of
selected commercial ivories. Table 3 and 4 summarize the class characteristics of selected ivory
substitutes. Appendix 1 is a step-by-step guide for identification using this text. Appendix 2 is a list of
supplies and equipment for use in the preliminary identification of ivory and ivory substitutes.
PLATE 1
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NATURAL UNPROCESSED IVORY
1. African elephant tusk (upper incisor); 2. Walrus tusk (upper canine); 3. Walrus teeth.
11
2
3
1
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PLATE 2
NATURAL UNPROCESSED IVORY
4. Whale teeth (Sperm/Killer whales); 5. Narwhal (upper incisor) Note: this tusk has been partly worked; 6. Hippopotamus
teeth (clockwise from top left: upper incisor, upper canine, lower canine); 7. Wart hog tusk (upper canine).
5
66
7
4
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Figure 8. Diagram of tusk morphology.
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Text: Edgard O. Espinoza and Mary-Jacque Mann
Originally published by World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation Foundation; 1991
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TABLE 2. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF
SELECTED COMMERCIAL IVORIES
SOURCE
MODIFIED
TOOTH
MACROSCOPIC
CHARACTERISTIC
MICROSCOPIC
CHARACTERISTIC
(10X)
ENAMEL
UV
CHARAC-
TERISTIC
Elephant
(Asian and
African
)
upper
incisors
Schreger angles>
115 degrees in cross-
section
tip, worn
away
Mammoth
upper
incisors
Schreger angles < 90
degrees in cross-
section
vivianite
may be
present
Walrus tusk
upper
canines
secondary dentine in
cross-section
tip, worn
away
Walrus teeth
all teeth
cementum rings in
cross-section;
hypercementosis
tip, may be
worn
Killer/Sperm
Whale
all teeth
dentine rings in
cross-section
tip
Narwhal
upper
incisor
spiral; hollow center
in cross-section
tip, worn
away
Hippopotamu
s
upper
canines
oval cross-section
angular TIZ
fine concentric lines
in cross-section
longitudinal
band
Hippopotamu
s
lower
canines
triangular cross-
section; angular TIZ
fine concentric lines
in cross-section
longitudinal
band
Hippopotamu
s
lower
incisors
peg-shaped; no TIZ
(dot)
fine concentric lines
in cross-section
tip
Wart Hog
upper and
lower
canines
squared cross-
section; linear TIZ
fine concentric lines
in cross-section
longitudinal
band
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ELEPHANT AND MAMMOTH (Laxodonta africana, Elephas maximus, Mammuthus)
Elephant and mammoth tusk ivory comes from the two modified upper incisors of extant and extinct
members of the same order (Proboscidea). African and Asian elephants are both extant. Mammoths have
been extinct for 10,000 years. Because of the geographical range in Alaska and Siberia, Mammuthus
primigenus tusks have been well preserved. Therefore, Mammuthus primigenus is the only extinct
proboscidean which consistently provides high quality, carvable ivory.
An African elephant tusk can grow to 3.5 meters in length. Enamel is only present on the tusk tip in young
animals. It is soon worn off and not replaced. Whole cross-section of proboscidean tusks are rounded or
oval. Dentine composes 95% of the tusk and will sometimes display broad concentric bands. Cementum,
which can be thick in extinct genera, covers the outside of the tusk. Cementum can present a layered
appearance, particularly in mammoth.
Polished cross-section of elephant and mammoth ivory dentine display uniquely characteristic Schreger
lines.
1
Schreger lines are commonly referred to as cross-hatchings, engine turnings, or stacked chevrons.
Schreger lines can be divided into two categories. The easily seen lines which are closest to the cementum
are the outer Schreger lines. The faintly discernable lines found around the tusk nerve pulp cavities are the
inner Schreger lines. The intersections of Schreger lines form angles. These Schreger angles appear in
two forms: concave angles and convex angles. Concave angles have slightly concave sides and open to
the medial (inner) area of the tusk. Convex angles have somewhat convex sides and open to the lateral
(outer) area of the tusk. Outer Schreger angles, both concave and convex, are acute in extinct proboscidea
and obtuse in extant proboscidea (Fig. 9).
1
Figure 9. Photocopies of extinct (left) and extant (right) proboscidean ivory cross-sections. The outer Schreger
angles (OA) are those which are in the dentine (D) closest to the cementum (C).
A photocopy machine is used to capture Schreger angles from mammoth and elephant ivory cross-
sections. The cross-section is placed on the glass plate of a photocopy machine. A blue photocopy
1
Schreger lines in proboscidean dentine were described by the German anatomist Bernhard Gottlob Schreger in 1800
(Obermayer 1881) and should not be confused with Hunter-Schreger bands in enamel.
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transparency sheet may be placed between the object and the glass plate to enhance the detail of the
photocopy. Enlargement of the photocopy may also improve the image and facilitate the measurement
process.
After a photocopy of the ivory cross-section has been obtained, Schreger angles may be marked and
measured. Use a pen or pencil and a ruler to mark and extend selected outer Schreger angle lines.
NOTE: Only outer Schreger angles should be used in this test. Once the angles have been marked
and extended, a protractor is used to obtain an angle measurement. Several angles, including both
concave and convex angles, should be marked and measured. Once the angles have been marked and
measured, calculate the angle average. The angle average can then be compared to the data base in
Figures 10 and 11.
Figures 10 and 11 show the angle data obtained in the study of the outer Schreger pattern of 26 cross-
sections of elephant ivory (Laxodonta africana and Elephas maximus) and 26 cross-sections of mammoth
ivory (Mammuthus primigenus). Five concave and five convex angles were measured on each of these
52 samples. The distribution of all 520 of these angles is presented in Figure 10. This figure shows that
between 90 degrees and 115 degrees an overlap exists in the lower end of the elephant concave angle
range and the upper end of the mammoth concave/convex angle range. Because specimens from both
extinct and extant sources may present angles between 90 degrees and 115 degrees in the outer Schreger
pattern area, the differentiation of mammoth from elephant ivory should never be based upon single angle
measurements when the angles fall in this range.
The distribution of the averages (means) of the concave and convex outer angles from the 52 samples of
elephant and extinct proboscidean ivory is presented in Figure 11. When the averages are used to
represent the angles in the individual samples, a clear separation between extinct and extant
proboscideans is observed. All the elephant samples had averages above 100 degrees, and all the extinct
proboscideans had angle averages below 100 degrees.
Another feature may be used to identify mammoth ivory. Mammoth ivory will occasionally display intrusive
brownish or blue-green colored blemishes caused by an iron phosphate called vivianite. Elephant ivory will
not display intrusive vivianite discoloration in its natural state. It is of interest to note that when the
discoloration is barely perceptible to the eye, the use of a hand-held ultraviolet light source causes the
blemished area to stand out with a dramatic purple velvet-like appearance. Even if discolored, elephant
ivory will not have the characteristic fluorescence of vivianite.
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Text: Edgard O. Espinoza and Mary-Jacque Mann
Originally published by World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation Foundation; 1991
Frecuency
Degrees
Figure 10. Histogram of all outer Schreger angles of extinct and extant proboscidean ivory samples
(N = 260 each).
Degrees of Angles
Figure 11. Plot of mean concave and mean convex outer Schreger angles of extinct and extant proboscidean
ivory samples (N = 26 each).
Extant Convex
Extant Concave
Extinct Convex
Extinct Concave
Extinct
Extants
Mean
73,21
124,15
Std. Dev.
14,71
13.35
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Ivory identification: Walrus
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WALRUS (Odobenus rosmarus)
Walrus tusk ivory comes from two modified upper canines. The tusks of a Pacific walrus may attain a length
of one meter. Walrus teeth are also commercially carved and traded. The average walrus tooth has a
rounded, irregular peg shape and is approximately 5 cm in length.
The tip of a walrus tusk has an enamel coating which is worn away during the animal’s youth. Fine
longitudinal cracks, which appear as radial cracks in cross-section, originate in the cementum and
penetrate the dentine. These cracks can be seen throughout the length of the tusk. Whole cross-sections of
walrus tusks are generally oval with widely spaced indentations. The dentine is composed of two types:
primary dentine and secondary dentine (often called osteodentine) (Fig. 13). Primary dentine has a
classical ivory appearance. Secondary dentine looks marbled or oatmeal-like. This type of secondary
dentine is diagnostic for walrus tusk ivory.
The dentine in walrus teeth is mainly primary dentine. The center of the tooth may contain a small core of
apparent secondary dentine. The dentine is completely surrounded by a cementum layer. Enamel may or
may not be present according to the extent to which the tooth has been carved or worn. A cross-section of
a walrus tooth will show very thick cementum with prominent cementum rings (Fig. 12). Concentric rings in
walrus teeth are due to hypercementosis. The dentine is separated from the cementum by a clearly defined
narrow transition ring.
Figure 12. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of a walrus tooth showing cemetum (C),
transition ring (T), and primary dentine (PD). This tooth also shows a small area of apparent secondary
dentine (SD). Note the presence of concentric rings in the exceptionally thick cementum.
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Figure 13. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of walrus tusk showing cementum (C),
primary dentine (PD), and secondary dentine (SD).
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Ivory identification: Spermwhale and Killerwhale
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SPERM WHALE AND KILLER WHALE (Physter catodon and Orcinus orca)
Sperm whale teeth can be quite large. The average height is approximately twenty centimeters. Killer whale
teeth are smaller. Both species display conically shaped teeth with a small amount of enamel at the tips.
The rest of the tooth is covered by cementum. Whole cross-section of killer whale and sperm whale teeth
are rounded or oval (Fig. 14). In addition, killer whale teeth show two slight peripheral indentations. The
dentine is deposited in a progressive laminar fashion. As a result of this laminar deposition, killer and sperm
whale teeth will show prominent concentric dentine rings in cross-section. Killer whale teeth may also
display a faint rosette pattern in the dentine cross-section. The dentine is separated from the cementum by
a clearly defined transition ring.
Figure 14. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of a sperm whale tooth showing
cementum (C), transition ring (T), and dentine (D). Note the presence of concentric rings in the dentine.
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NARWHAL (Monodon monoceros)
The narwhal is a rarely seen arctic whale. The male of this species has a single left tusk that is a modified
upper incisor. The tusk is spirally twisted, usually in a counter-clockwise direction. In a mature specimen
the tusk can be from two to seven meters long. Enamel may be present at the tip of the tusk. The
cementum frequently displays longitudinal cracks which follow the depressed areas of the spiral pattern. As
a result, narwhal tusk cross-sections are rounded with peripheral indentations. The cementum is separated
from the dentine by a clearly defined transition ring. Like killer and sperm whale, the dentine can display
prominent concentric rings. The pulp cavity extends throughout most of the length of the tusk giving cross-
sections a hollow interior (Fig. 15).
Figure 15. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of narwhal tusk showing the
cementum (C), transition ring (T), and dentine (D).
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HIPPOPOTAMUS (Hippopotamus amphibius)
Upper and lower canines and incisors are the most common sources for hippo ivory. Each type of tooth has
distinctive gross morphology. Close examination of cross-section of hippo dentine with the aid of a 10X
hand lens reveals a tightly packed series of fine concentric lines. These lines can be regularly or irregularly
spaced. The orientation of the lines will follow the overall shape of the particular tooth. The center of the
tooth may display an interstitial zone (TIZ). This interstitial zone represents the growth convergence of the
developing dentin.
The hippo’s curved upper canines are oval to rounded in cross-section. In the unprocessed state, a deep
longitudinal indentation extends for the length of the tooth on the inner surface of the curve. A broad
longitudinal band of enamel covers approximately two-thirds of the surface area of the tooth. This enamel
band is frequently removed during the carving process. The surface which is not coated with enamel
displays a very thin layer of cementum. This may also be removed during processing. The interstitial zone
in the upper canine is a curved line of broadly arched line (Fig. 16).
The lower canines are the hippo’s largest teeth. They are strongly curved. In cross-section, the lower
canines are triangular. Raw lower canines will display a faint longitudinal indentation, a marked rippling of
the surface and an approximate two-thirds coverage with enamel. Like upper canine, a thin layer of
cementum exists in the areas not covered with enamel. And, as with the upper canines, these surface
characteristics are frequently removed during processing. The interstitial zone in the lower canine is broadly
arched line (Fig. 17).
Hippo incisors can be described as peg shaped. Enamel is found on the tooth crown. The center of the
tooth in cross-section shows a small dot (Fig. 18).
Figure 16. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of hippo upper canine showing cementum (C), enamel
(E), and dentine (D). Note the angular tusk interstitial zone (TIZ) and the fine lines in the dentine.
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Figure 17. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of hippo lower canine showing dentine (D) only.
The cementum has been mechanically removed from this specimen. Note the arched tusk interstitial zone (TIZ) and
the fine lines in the dentine.
Figure 18. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of hippo incisor showing cementum (C) and
dentine (D). Note the fine lines in the dentine.
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Ivory identification: Wart Hog
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WART HOG (Phacochoerus aethiopicus)
Wart hog ivory comes from the animal’s upper and lower canine teeth. These tusks are strongly curved and
have generally squared cross-sections. Full length to near full length furrows and a longitudinal enamel
band with approximately one–half to two-thirds coverage mark the tusks’ surface in the raw, unprocessed
state. The interstitial zone is a narrow line. Wart hog ivory tends to have a mottled appearance.
Examination of a cross-section with a 10X hand lens reveals that wart hog dentine shows irregularly
spaced concentric lines of varying thickness (Fig. 19).
Figure 19. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross-section of a wart hog tusk showing cementum (C)
and dentine (D). Note the tusk interstitial zone (TIZ) line and fine lines in the dentine.
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IVORY SUBSTITUTES
There are two categories of ivory substitutes: natural and manufactured. Among the natural ivory
substitutes are bone, shell, hornbill ivory, and vegetable ivory. Plastic is a type of manufactured ivory
substitute. Ivory substitutes are readily distinguishable from ivory by virtue of their ultraviolet light reactivity
in combination with their physical characteristics. Sophisticated laboratory based examinations using
non-destructive Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR) will extend the identification process by
analyzing the chemical constituents of the ivory substitute. Table 3 summarizes the class characteristics of
ivory substitutes.
TABLE 3. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS OF
SELECTED IVORY SUBSTITUTES
SOURCE
MATERIAL
TYPE
MACROSCOPIC
CHARACTERISTIC
MICROSCOPIC
CHARACTERISTIC
UV
CHARACTERISTIC
Bone
dahllite
haversian system
fluorescence like ivory
Shell
calcium
carbonate
color mottling may
be present
mottled dull blue
fluorescence
Helmeted
Hornbill
keratin
red coloration on
periphery
red color appears blue;
ivory color remains true
Vegetable
ivory
cellulose
dark brown husk
may be present
fine concentric lines
fluorescence similar to
ivory
Manufactured
ivory
substitutes
casein plus
resin
absorbs UV light; dull
blue appearance;
celluloid may appear
“mocha”
Manufactured
ivory
substitutes
ivory dust
plus resin
absorbs UV light; dull
blue appearance;
Manufactured
ivory
substitutes
polyester or
phenolic
resins
absorbs UV light; dull
blue appearance;
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NATURAL IVORY SUBSTITUTES
Bone
Bone is a mineralized connective tissue consisting of dahllite, proteins and lipids. Compact bone, which is
most often used as an ivory substitute, is extensively permeated by a series of canals through which fluid
flows. This is the Haversian System. The Haversian canals can be seen on a polished bone surface using
a 10X hand lens. These canals appear as pits or scratch-like irregularities (Fig. 20). Their appearance is
often accentuated by the presence of discolored organic material which adheres to the pit walls.
Figure 20. Photomicrograph of bone. Note the Haversian and irregularities on the surface.
Shell
Shell is a calcium carbonate found as the protective covering of a soft bodied mollusk. Shell can be
polished to a very smooth hard surface. Shells may present color mottling which persists through ultraviolet
examination. In the absence of gross morphological features, identification of shell is best done by FT-IR.
Helmeted Hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil)
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The casque of the endangered Helmeted Hornbill (Fig. 21), a native of Borneo, can be carved and
polished. The casque is a hollow, roughly cylindrical attachment to the bird’s upper bill. The casque is
distinctive by virtue of its size, up to approximately 8 x 5 x 2.5 cm, and its peripheral color, which is a bright
red. Other names for Hornbill casque “ivory” are “ho-ting” and “golden jade”.
Figure 21. Photograph of a carved helmeted hornbill casque. Inserts are (left) a drawing of an intact hornbill head and
(right) a photograph of a carved casque relative to its normal anatomical position. Note the peripheral coloration.
Vegetable Ivory (Phytelephas macrocarpa)
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Text: Edgard O. Espinoza and Mary-Jacque Mann
Originally published by World Wildlife Fund and The Conservation Foundation; 1991
Vegetable ivory or ivory nuts are primarily the nuts of the Tagua palm tree (Phytelephas macrocarpa)
although other palms of the same subfamily also produce ivory nuts. Tagua trees grow mainly in moist
locations in northern South America. The mature nut, which can reach the size of an apple, has a very
white, exceedingly hard cellulose kernel, which is worked like ivory. The husk of the nut (Fig. 22) has a dark
brown appearance and is frequently incorporated into the carving.
Examination of the cellulose in carved vegetable ivory reveals a series of fine, regularly spaced concentric
lines (Fig. 23) similar to those seen in the hippopotamus. Close examination with a low powered
microscope reveals a grainy or lined appearance. These features may not always be obvious on highly
curved surfaces. Vegetable ivory UV fluorescence is very similar to ivory fluorescence. In the absence of
obvious morphologically identifying features, identification of vegetable ivory is best done using FT-IR.
Perhaps one of the oldest field tests for differentiating vegetable ivory from real ivory is the addition of
sulfuric acid to the item to be examined. Sulfuric acid applied to vegetable ivory causes an irreversible pink
coloring in about 12 minutes. Genuine ivory should not stain. CAUTION: Due to the irreversible nature of
this test, only a minute dot of acid should be applied to the object in question.
Figure 22 (left) Enlarged photograph of partially worked tagua nut showing cellulose kernel and husk.
Figure 23. (right) Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a cross section of tagua nut. Note the presence of fine lines.
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MANUFACTURED IVORY SUBSTITUTES
Manufactured ivory substitutes fall into three categories: 1) composites of an organic resin and an inorganic
material; 2) composites of casein
2
and a resin material and, 3) composites of ivory sawdust
3
with a binder
or resin. Trade names for some manufactured ivory substitutes are listed below.
TABLE 4. EXAMPLES OF MANUFACTURED IVORY
SUBSTITUTES
TRADE NAME
COMPOSITION
MANUFACTURER
AND/OR DISTRIBUTOR
Vigopas P71A
polyester resin
Raschig Corp.,
Richmond, Virginia, USA
Dekorit 203
Dekorit V384
phenolic resin
Raschig Corp.,
Richmond, Virginia, USA
Galolith
casein + polyester
Fedra Design Ltd.,
Providence, Rhode Island, USA
Celluloid
cellulose nitrate + camphor
may contain casein
no longer manufactured
Composite
polymer
ivory dust + styrene resin
Ivorite
casein + hardener
Yamaha Corporation, Japan
Alabrite
calcium carbonate + adhesive
binder
no longer manufactured
Figures 24 and 25 are examples of manufactured ivory substitutes. Figure 24 is an early twentieth century
celluloid, and Figure 25 is a modern polyester resin. Note the attempt to mimic a proboscidean pattern.
2
Pure casein displays a UV fluorescence similar to ivory. The chemical structures, however, are easily distinguishable
by FT-IR.
3
Ivory sawdust compositions are not ivory substitutes in the true sense of the term. They are subject to the same international
trade controls and permit requirements as solid ivory products.
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Regardless of the appearance or chemical composition of the manufactured ivory substitutes, they all
share a common identifying characteristics. When ultraviolet light is shined on manufactured ivory products
they absorb the ultraviolet light exhibiting a dull blue appearance. Ivory, on the other hand, has a white/blue
florescent appearance.
Identification of manufactured ivory substitutes is facilitated if standards of the manufactured ivories are
available for comparative purposes when using the ultraviolet light
Figure 24. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of an early twentieth century celluloid ivory substitute.
Note the design which attempts to mimic the pattern of proboscidean ivory.
Figure 25. Enlarged and enhanced photograph of a modern polyester resin ivory substitute. Note the design which
attempts to mimic the pattern of proboscidean ivory.
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Ivory identification: Annex 1and 2
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ANNEX 1
PROCEDURE FOR THE PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF IVORY AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
The following is a suggested procedure for use in the preliminary identification of ivory and ivory
substitutes. This procedure should be used in conjunction with the text descriptions and Tables 1, 2, and 3.
1.
Examine object with long wave ultraviolet light*
2.
Examine object for the presence of significant diagnostic morphological features (see Tables 1, 2,
and 3).
3.
If Schreger angles are present, see pages 10 – 13.
4.
If no specific identification is suggested by steps 1 through 3, submit object for laboratory controlled
instrumental analyses.
* Long wave ultraviolet radiation is hazardous to the eyes. NEVER look directly at UV light.
ANNEX 2
LIST OF SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT FOR USE IN THE PRELIMINARY IDENTIFICATION OF IVORY
AND IVORY SUBSTITUTES
Long wave ultraviolet light*
(Optional) Set of comparison standards consisting of exemplar pieces of ivory, bone, shell, vegetable ivory,
and manufactured ivory substitutes
10X magnification hand lens
Photocopy machine with variable contrast
Ruler
Protractor
* Long wave ultraviolet radiation is hazardous to the eyes. NEVER look directly at a UV light.
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GLOSSARY
Ameloblast: enamel forming cell
Artiodactyla: the mammalian order which includes hippos and wart hogs
Casque: an enlargement on the upper surface of the bill of a hornbill bird
Cementum: a mineralized dental tissue which covers the dentine and causes the tooth or tusk to adhere
to the jaw
Cetacea: the mammalian order which includes dolphins and great whales
Class Characteristics: features which identify an object as being a member of a group of similar objects
Concentric: having a common center
Cross-section: cut at a right angle to the long axis
Dahllite: a calcium phosphate mineral which comprises the majority of the tooth mass
Dentine: a mineralized dental tissue which serves as a temporary or permanent outer covering of a tooth
or tusk
Enamel: a mineralized dental tissue which serves as a temporary or permanent outer covering of a tooth
or tusk
Extant: in existence, not destroyed or lost
Extinct: no longer in existence, died out
FT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy): a non-destructive technique for the chemical analysis
of materials based upon molecular interaction with infrared radiation. The analytical product of this
technique is expressed in an inter ferogram
Fossilization: the process of replacement of naturally occurring components of a tusk or tooth with the
elemental components of its environment
Haversian System: a series of interconnecting fluid transport spaces within a bone
Hypercementosis: a condition which results in unusually large depositions of cementum on a tooth
Interstitial Zone: an intervening space between convergent areas of dentine
Macroscopic: large enough to be observed with the unaided eye
Mandible: the lower jawbone
Maxilla: the upper jawbone
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Mean: statistical average
Microscopic: small enough to require the use of a magnifying lens or microscope, not visible to the
unaided eye
Odontoblast: dentine forming cell
Pinnipedia: the mammalian order which includes walruses
Prismatic: composed of prisms (crystal with specific face and edge configurations)
Proboscidea: the mammalian order which includes elephants and mammoths
Schreger Pattern: a system crossing lines which is unique to proboscidean ivory
Scrimshaw: engraved or shallowly carved bone or ivory
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SELECTED REFERENCES
Chemical Characteristics of Ivory
Baer, N.S., N. Indicator, J.H. Frantz and B. Appelbaum. 1971. The effect of high temperature on ivory.
Studies in Conservation 16:1-8.
Lafontaine, R.H. and P.A. Wood. 1982 The stabilization of ivory against relative humidity fluctuations.
Studies in Conservation 27:109-117.
LeGeros, R.Z., O.R. Trautz, E. Klein and J.P. LeGeros. 1960. Two types of carbonate substitution in the
apatite structure. Experientia 26:5-7.
Matienzo, L.J. and C.E. Snow.1986. The Chemical effects of hydrochloric acid and organic solvents on the
surface of ivory. Studies in Conservation 31:133-139.
Mc. Donnel, D. 1965. Crystal chemistry of hydroxyappatite: its relation to bone mineral. Archives of Oral
Biology 10:421-431.
Rajaram, A. 1986. Tensile properties and fracture of ivory. Journal of Materials Science Letters 5:1077-
1080.
Rorimer, J.J. 1931. Ivory and bone. Ultraviolet Rays and Their Use in the Examination of Works of Art.
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
Ivory Classification and Morphology
Brown, G. and A.W. Moule. 1977. The structural characteristics of elephant ivory. The Australian
Gemmologist 13 (1):13-17.
Brown, G and A.W. Moule. 1977. The structural characteristics of elephant ivory. The Australian
Gemmologist 13(2):47-60.
Espinoza, E.O., M.J. Mann, J.P. LeMay, and K.O. Oakes. 1990. A method for differentiating modern from
ancient proboscidean ivory in worked objects. Current Research in the Pleistocene 7:81-83.
Espinoza, E.O., and Mann, M.J. 1993. The History and Significance of the Schreger Pattern in Proboscidean
Ivory Characterization. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation, Vol. 32. No.3:241-248.
Fisher, D.C. 1987. Mastodont procurement by paleoindians of the Great Lakes region: hunting or
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Corp.
Hanausek, T.F. 1907. The Microscopy of Technical Products (trans. A.L. Winton). John Wiley & Sons, New
York, pp.422-429.
Hohnel, V. 1892. Beitrag zur Kenntniss der technisch verwendeten elfenbeinarten. Zeitschrift fur
Nahrungsmittel-Untersuchung, Hygiene und Waarenkunde 7:141-144, 9:183-188, 10:205-211.
Kingsley, M.C.S. and M.A. Ramsay. 1988. The spiral in the tusk of the narwhal. Arctic (41(3):236-238.
MacKinnon, J. 1981. The structure and function of the tusks of babirusa. Mammal Review 11(1):37-40.
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Ivory identification: References
Reprinted: 1999
Martin, L.A., Boyde, F. Grine and S. Jones (eds.) 1988. Scanning Electron Microscopy of Vertebrate
Mineralized Tissues. Scanning Microscopy International, Chicago.
Miles, A.E.W. and J. W. White. 1960. Ivory. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine 53:775-780.
Miles, A.E.W. and D.F.G. Poole. 1967. History and general organizations of dentitions. Structural and
Chemical Organization of Teeth, Vol. 1 (A.E.W. Miles, ed.) Academic Press, London.
Miller, W.D. 1890. Studies on the anatomy and pathology of the tusks of the elephant, minute anatomy of
the tusks of elephants. The Dental Cosmos 23:421-429.
Mitchell, J. 1978. Incremental growth layers in the dentine of dugong incisors [Dugong dugon (Muller)] and
their application to age determination. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 62:317-348.
Obermayer, F. 1881. Beitrag zur kenntnis des zahnbeines vom elefanten, nilpferd, walross und narwal.
Verlag des Vereines der Wiener Handels-Akademie: 102-113.
O’Connor, T.P. 1984. On the structure, chemistry and decay of bone, antler and ivory. U.K.I.C. Archaeology
Section Proceedings, United Kingdom.
Owen, R. 1845. Odontography. London
Owen, R. 1854. The Principle Forms of the Skeleton and of the Teeth. Blanchard and Lea. Philadelphia.
Owen, F.R.S. 1856. Ivory and the teeth of commerce. Journal of the Society of Arts 5 (213):65-71.
Penniman, T.K. 1952. Pictures of ivory and other animal teeth, bone and antler. Occasional Paper on
Technology 5:13-18.
Saunders, J.J. 1979. A close look at ivory. The Living Museum 41(4):56-59.
Sanford, E.C. 1973. The Identification and Working of Ivory. Thesis, Institute of Archaeology. University of
London.
Shell, H.1983. Is it Ivory? Ahio Publishing Co. Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Thornton, J. 1981. The structure of ivory and ivory substitutes. A.I.C. Preprints of Ninth Annual Meeting,
Philadelphia.
Thornton,J.I., K. Guenther, et.al. 1980. Forensic Identificationof Ivory Species. Final Report on contract no.
14-16-0009-031,U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
Vereshchagen, N.K. and A.N. Tikhonov. 1987. A study of mammoth tusks from permafrost of northeastern
Siberia.Current Research in the Pleistocene 4:120-122.
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Ivory Substitutes
Barfod, A. 1989. Rise and fall of vegetable ivory. Principes 33:181-190.
Cats-Kuenen, C.S.W. Manger 1961. Casque and bill of Rhinoplax vigil (Forst.) in connection with the
architecture of the skull. Koninklujke Nederlandse Akadamie van Wetenschappen, Verhandelingen
Afdeling Naturkunde Series 2.53(3):1-51.
Harrisson, T. 1969. “Ho-ting”: hornbill ivory. Chinese Snuff Bottles May: 82-92.
Hunger, F.J. 1990. Tagua: the vegetable ivory substitute. Fine Woodworking 83:65-67.
Schabilion, S. 1983. All In a Nutshell: The Story of the Vegetable Ivory Nut. Keystone Comedy, Mississippi.
Ivory Trade
Bruemmer, F. 1989. Ancient spell of the sea unicorn. International Wildlife Nov/Dec: 38-43.
Federal Register. 1989 Moratorium on importation of raw and worked ivory from all ivory producing and
intermediary nations. Federal Register 54(110):24758-24761.
Martin, E.B. 1990. Ivory billiard balls. BBC Wildlife 8(9): 622-623.
O’Connell, M.A. and M. Sutton. 1990 The Effects of Trade Moratoria on International Commerce in African
Elephant Ivory: A Preliminary Report. World Wildlife Fund and the Conservation Foundation [in
cooperation with TRAFFIC (USA)], Washington, D.C.
Tolmachoff, I.P. 1929. The carcasses of the mammoth and rhinoceros found in the frozen ground of
Siberia. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 23:12-14.
Westendarp, W. 1880. Das gebiet der elephanten und der elfen bein-reichthum indiens und afrikas.
Mittheilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft in Hamburg 1878-79: 201-213.
Other
Burack, B. 1984. Ivory And Its Uses. Charles E. Tuttle Co., Vermont.
Maskell, A. Ivories. 1966, Charles E. Tuttle, Co., Vermont.
St. Aubyn, F. (ed.) 1987. Ivory: An International History and Illustrated Survey. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. New
York.